Master this deck with 64 terms through effective study methods.
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The removal of metabolic waste from the body
It is not metabolic waste but food waste
Egestion
Yes, it regulates internal environments by removing excess of abnormal substances such as CO2 and nitrogenous waste.
Increased acidity of the blood due to the Bohr effect
-Detoxification of blood including the breakdown of alcohol -Regulation of blood sugar levels -Conversion of amino acids to ammonia to urea -Production of cholesterol -Production of blood proteins -Production of bile
- Hepatic artery supplies liver with a good supply of oxygen for increased respiration rate, for plenty of energy - Hepatic vein takes deoxygenated blood away from the liver - Hepatic portal vein brings blood from the duodenum and ileum so it is rich in products of digestion. Any harmful substances are filtered out and broken down. - The bile duct takes bile from the gall bladder to emulsify fats
A hexagon shaped structure with a triad at each corner (bile duct, portal arteriole, portal venuole)
a parenchymal liver cell that performs all functions ascribed to the liver
macrophage in liver
Capillary space in the liver between hepatocytes.
Veins found at the centre of a "classic" hepatic lobule. They receive the blood from the sinusoids and return it to circulation via the hepatic vein
- Blood runs through the centre of the lobules through both the hepatic artery and portal vein connected to the central vein by sinusoids - Blood runs through sinusoids, past hepatocytes and Kufper cells on the walls which remove harmful substances. - Less harmful substances re-enter the blood and runs through the central veins of all the liver lobules and is returned to the hepatic vein.
hepatocytes in the liver
collects bile produced by hepatocytes and drains into the bile duct takes
Large, white circle shape
Smaller, frequent white spaces
Red blobs which radiate out from the central vein.
- Amine groups are removed from excess amino acids forming ammonia and organic acids, this is deamination. - Organic acids are respired to make ATP or converted to carbohydrates and stored as glycogen. - Ammonia is too toxic to directly excrete so is combined with CO2 via the ornithine cycle (no detail required) to form urea and water. - Urea is released into the blood and the kidneys filter urea out to the bladder which is secreted as urine.
- Breaks down ethanol into ethanal and then acetic acid (excess alcohol consumption may lead to cirrhosis) - Breaks down drugs such as paracetamol (excess drug consumption can cause liver failure) - Insulin is broken down in the liver when blood sugar is too low
The liver converts excess glucose to glycogen via glycogenesis. Glycogen is stored in the liver cells until glucose is needed for energy.
- cortex - medulla - renal calyx - renal capsule - renal artery and vein - pelvis - ureter - bladder - urethra
Renal artery (branch of abdominal artery) brings oxygenated blood to the nephron (functional unit of the kidney) Renal vein takes de-oxygenated blood away from the kidney to the caudal vena cava
Outer layer, site of glomerular filtration
Inner layer, contains the loop of Henle
- Blood enters via the renal artery and substances are filtered out via ultrafiltration - Useful substances re-enter the blood via selective reabsorption - Remaining unwanted substances pass along the tubules, into the ureter, into the bladder and out of the urethra. - Blood exits via the renal vein
structural and functional unit of the kidney
- Bowman's capsule at start of nephron: cup-shaped, surrounds glomerulus, inner layer of podocytes. - Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): series of loops surrounded by capillaries, walls made of epithelial cells with microvilli. - Loop of Henle: hairpin loop extends from cortex into medulla. - Distal convoluted tubule : similar to PCT but fewer capillaries. - Collecting duct: DCT from several nephrons empty into collecting duct, which leads into pelvis of kidney.
- Blood enters a bundle of dense capillaries called the glomerulus via the afferent arteriole - Due to the decrease in the diameter of the lumen, extremely high pressure is generated in the glomerulus, forcing liquid and small molecules out of the capillary into the Bowman's capsule. - To enter, the liquid and small molecules must pass through the capillary endothelium, basement membrane and the epithelium of the Bowman's capsule. - Larger molecules like proteins and RBCs stay in the blood. - The liquid and substances in the Bowman's capsule is now called filtrate, which pass through the rest of the nephron.
- water - glucose - amino acids - mineral ions - urea
- Takes place in the PCT - The epithelium of the proximal convoluted tubule has microvilli to provide a large surface area for the reabsorption of useful substances such as glucose, amino acids and salts. - This is reabsorbed by facilitated diffusion and active transport.
- Takes place in the loop of Henle, DCT and collecting duct. - water moves out of the filtrate into the blood via osmosis due to a water potential gradient. - The filtrate left is called urine which travels along the ureter to the bladder
urea, water, salt, excess hormones, drugs
- contains glomeruli - contains Bowman's capsules - contains DCT and PCT
Contains loops of Henle and capillaries
1. Observe the renal capsule 2. Notice the indents on the kidney 3. Try to identify the blood vessels, the ureter will be the most fatty 4. Draw a labelled sketch of the external kidney 5. Cut the kidney open using a scalpel in half lengthways 6. Notice that the cortex appears grainy and lighter than the medulla 7. Cone-shaped structures should be visible in the medulla 8. The renal calyces should lead to the pelvis 9. Draw a sketch to show the inside structures and add labels
Anti diuretic hormone - ADH
concentrating urine
Has a descending limb, thin(attached to the PCT) and then curves round where it forms the ascending limb, thick, which joins the DCT.
Water is selectively reabsorbed into the blood via osmosis due to the set up of a water potential gradient in the ascending and descending limbs.
- Near the top of the ascending limb, sodium and chloride ions are actively pumped into the medulla. - The ascending limb is impermeable to water, creating a very low water potential in the medulla. - As there is a lower water potential in the medulla than the DESCENDING limb, water moves out of the descending limb via osmosis and is reabsorbed into the blood by capillaries in the medulla - This increases filtrate concentration as the descending limb is impermeable to ions. - Near the base of the ascending limb, more ions diffuse out further lowering the water potential of the medulla. - Water diffuses out of the collecting duct via osmosis and is again absorbed by capillaries in the medulla.
If animals live in a dry environment, they have longer loops of Henle to ensure maximum water reabsorption. If animals live in wet environments, they may not even have loops of Henle.
Osmoreceptors in the osmoregulatory centre of the hypothalamus
ADH increases the permeability of principal cells in the DCT and collecting duct, allowing more water to be reabsorbed into the blood.
- Low water potential of the blood is detected by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. - The hypothalamus sends an action potential to the posterior pituitary gland - The posterior pituitary gland secretes ADH into the blood - ADH travels to target cells on the surface of the collecting duct - Aquaporins are inserted into the cell surface membrane of the cells in collecting duct which increases water permeability - More water is reabsorbed into the blood and urine is more concentrated
When the kidneys don't work properly, so waste substances build up in the blood and you lose the ability to control the levels of ions and water in your body - this will eventually result in death
By measuring the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
The rate at which blood is filtered through the glomeruli of the kidneys. When the GFR is lower than normal
- Kidney infections: inflammation can damage cells interfering with ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption. - High blood pressure: damage glomeruli, as too high a pressure can cause proteins to be forced out
1. Build up of toxic chemicals in the blood causing extreme nausea and vomiting 2. Fluid will accumulate in tissues causing excessive swelling 3. The balance of electrolytes will be off. Blood will become acidic and bones will become brittle 4. Kidney failure eventually leads to a very unpleasant and slow death
- Renal dialysis (haemodialysis for OCR spec) - Kidney transplants
- Blood is passed through a dialysis machine. - Blood flows along one side of a partially permeable membrane and dialysis fluid flows on the other side, in opposite directions, maintaining a conc. gradient - harmful products in the blood diffuse out of the blood into the dialysis fluid. - filtered blood re-enters the body
- patients become increasingly sick between dialysis treatments which is very unpleasant - incredibly time consuming, each session is 3-5 hours and is needed 2-3 times a week. - There will eventually be no more safe areas to let blood flow out of the body as too many damaged blood vessels accumulate from previous dialysis sessions.
Where a new kidney is implanted into a patient's body to replace a damaged kidney
- matching blood type - matching tissue type
Deceased organ donors or living organ donors (people can survive with only one kidney)
The patient does not need to have dialysis treatment, which is time-consuming. Transplants are cheaper than dialysis in the long run.
- major operation - long recovery time - risk of rejection - must take immunosuppressants
- pregnancy - anabolic steroids - recreational drugs
- hCG is a hormone produced by the placenta and is found in the mother's urine during pregnancy. - the test stick contains monoclonal antibodies for hCG bound to a blue bead dye. All monoclonal antibodies are identical. - When urine is applied, any hCG will bind to antibodies on the beads. - The hCG-antibody complex travels up the test strip carrying the beads with it - The test strip has immobilised antibodies which bind to hCG and release the blue dye concentrated along a line. - Regardless of hCG presence, a control line will appear to confirm the antibodies have travelled down correctly.
a hormone like testosterone that promotes muscle growth, usually artificially produced when referred to as anabolic steroids
Increased risk of heart disease, kidney damage, testicular atrophy, and aggressive behavior.
- urine testing by gas chromatography - the urine sample is vaporised and passed through a column containing a polymer. - Like TLC, different substances move through at different speeds in accordance with the mobile and stationary phases -a mass spectrometer is used to convert substances into ions and results are analysed by a computer, which is then compared with known values to determine what is present in the urine.
- urine testing - usually a stick test analogous to that of a pregnancy test - if stick test is positive, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry is used to confirm.