Master this deck with 100 terms through effective study methods.
Imported from Quizlet
abnormality is defined as those behaviours that are extremely rare, i.e. any behaviour that is found in very few people is regarded as abnormal. e.g. IQ - statistically unusual if below 70. diagnosed w/ intellectual disability disorder
behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society abnormality based on social context example: antisocial personality disorder (formerly psychopathy) - failure to conform to lawful and culturally normal behaviour. psychopaths are abnormal because they deviate from social norms/standards.
all assessment of patients w/ mental disorders includes comparison to statistical norms. thus a useful part of clinical assessment.
IQ scores of >130 are also statistically abnormal, but people with this are not diagnosed w/ a disorder like those who have IQ<70. limitation because this means it should never be used alone to make a diagnosis
if someone is happy and fulfilled, there is no benefit from being labelled as abnormal - could cause a negative view of self and others.
different cultures label people differently - creates problems for people from one culture living w/i another culture creates cultural bias in assessment
too much reliance on this method of assessment and lead to systematic abuse of human rights, for example diagnosing people with conditions for trying to escape slavery or being attracted to working-class people - diagnoses used for control.
occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day-to-day living. no longer conforming to interpersonal rules, experience personal distress, behave irrationally or dangerously.
occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health. can overlap w/ failure to function adequately
Six conditions of ideal mental health: (1) positive self attitude (2) self actualisation - realising your potential, being fulfilled. (3) resistance to stress (4) personal autonomy - making your own decisions, being in control. (5) accurate perception of reality (6) adaption to the environment.
allows patient to discuss how they struggle to cope w/ everyday pressures - captures experience of those who need help
hard to say when someone is really failing to function, or if they just deviate from social norms. e.e people who live alternative lifestyles. treating this as failures of adequate functioning limits freedom.
someone has to judge distress - patients may feel distressed but may not be viewed as suffering.
broad criteria of mental health covers most reasons why someone may seek help.
Johoda's classification may be specific to western norms. emphasis on self-actualisation may be seen as self-indulgence on collectivist cultures.
very few people actually attain all of the criteria at all times ∴ most people would be viewed as abnormal.
behavioural - panic - avoidance of phobic stimulus emotional - anxiety/fear - unreasonable responses cognitive - selective attention twd phobic stimulus (difficult to focus elsewhere) - irratoinal beliefs
behavioural - low activity levels - disruption to sleep/eating emotional - low mood - anger cognitive - poor concentration - absolutist thinking
behavioural - compulsions - avoidance emotional - anxiety/distress - guilt/disgust cognitive - obsessive thoughts - insight into excessive anxiety (awareness that thoughts are irrational - hyper-vigilant of obsession)
a theory that explains the two processes that lead to the development of phobias - they begin through classical conditioning and are maintained through operant conditioning.
e.g. bitten (UCS) → fear (UCR) dog (NS) associated w/ UCS. dog previously elicited no response. NS becomes CS producing fear (now the CR)
subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear. whenever Albert played w/ a white rat (NS), loud bang (UCS) was heard causing fear (UCR). when rat was paired w/ bang several times, it became associated until rat (CS) caused fear (CR). Albert generalised the fear - was scared of other white furry objects.
negative reinforcement: phobic avoids phobic stimulus to escape anxiety response. this reduction in fear negatively reinforces avoidance behaviour and phobia is maintained.
important applications for therapy - if patient is prevented from practising avoidance behaviour phobic behaviour decreases.
in conditions such as agoraphobia, avoidance is linked w/ feelings of safety. this explains why some agoraphobics are able to leave the house with others, just not alone. problem for two-process model → suggests avoidance is motivated by anxiety reduction
some aspects of phobias require further explanation - easy to acquire phobias of things which were a danger in evolutionary past. this is biological preparedness (innate). shows there is more to acquiring a phobia than conditioning.
suggests conditioning alone cannot explain phobias. they may develop only where a vulnerability exists - two-process cannot explain this vulnerability.
behav explanations are oriented twd explaining behav not cognition. however this is a limitation as there are cognitive elements of phobias such as selective attention and irrational beliefs which cannot be explained thro' behaviourism.
clients are taught to relax as they are gradually exposed to what they fear in a stepwise manner. patient and therapist form anxiety hierarchy - list of fearful stimuli from least to most frightening. relaxation is then practised at each stage of hierarchy. takes place over several sessions.
the exposure of the client to the actual anxiety stimulus until they can relax fully. w/o option of avoidance, patient learns quickly that phobic stimulus is harmless. this is known as extinction. patients must give informed consent & know fully what to expect.
Gilroy et al (2003): group of patients who had SD for spider phobia were less fearful than control group after three sessions after 3 and 33 months. shows positive effects are long-lasting.
flooding etc. are not suitable for some patients due to problems such as learning difficulties making it difficult for them to understand what is happening. for these patients, and most others, SD is an appropriate treatment as every step is discussed.
patients prefer it. it doesn't cause same degree of trauma as flooding. reflected in low refusal rates, and low drop-out rates.
social phobias cannot be treated this way due to their cognitive nature and so cognitive therapies may be more suitable to tackle irrational thinking.
not unethical - patients give consent. however patients are unwilling to see it through - ultimately makes treatment ineffective which wastes time and money.
theory assumes that individuals with a tendency to be depressed think about the world differently than non-depressed persons and that these individuals are more negative and believe that bad things will happen to them due to their own personal shortcomings. tend to have low self esteem and pessimistic perceptions, seem hopeless. due to faulty info processing - attend to negative aspects and ignore positive ones.
negative information we hold about ourselves based on negative past experiences that can lead to cognitive biases such as interpreting all info about ourselves in a negative manner
negative view of self, future, and world
an explanation that sees depression occurring through an (A)ctivating event such as failing a test, which triggers an irrational (B)elief such as believing that we must always succeed. this leads to a (C)onsequence - in this case depression.
Grazioli & Terry (2001) assessed pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability to depression before and after birth. women judged to be high-risk were more likely to suffer from PND. these congnitions can be seen before condition develops, suggesting Beck may be right about faulty cognition leading to depression.
Beck's explanation forms basis for CBT which identifies and challenges elements of negative triad. strength of the explanation as it translates well into a therapy.
some depressed patients are deeply angry and Beck cannot explain this. some experience hallucinations, bizzare beliefs or the delusion that they are a zombie. Beck's theory cannot always explain all cases of depression - just focuses on one aspect of the disorder - reductionist
reactive depression follows activating event - but some forms arise for no apparent reason. Ellis' explanation only applies to some kinds of depression
cognitive primacy: emotions are influenced thro' cognitions however other explanations of depression see emotions such as anxiety as stored (like physical energy) to emerge some time after causal event. casts doubt on cognitive root of depression as it does not explain all aspects of disorder.
patient and therapist work together to clarity problems and clarify where negative/irrational thoughts which will benefit from change might be. these thoughts are challenged by the patient taking an active role in their treatment. patients are encouraged to test irrationality of their beliefs as "homework" where they record when they enjoyed something or when someone was nice to them. this way if they say there is no point in going on etc. in future sessions the therapist has physical evidence to challenge this.
a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.
REBT extends Ellis' ABC model to include (D)isputing irrational beliefs and (E)ffect of challenging this
used by therapist in REBT to challenge irrational belief. disputing whether there is evidence to support belief.
used by therapist in REBT to challenge irrational belief. disputing whether the negative thought actually follows from the facts
the goal of cognitive treatment is to get depressed individuals to gradually decrease avoidance and isolation and increase engagement in activities such as exercising.
compared w/ anti-depressant drugs after 36 weeks 81% of drug group and 86% of drug+therapy group were significantly improved. CBT just as helpful as medication and effective alongside medication good case for making CBT treatment of choice in NHS
in severe cases patients cannot motivate themselves to comply with the CBT in these cases it is better to treat w/ medication and have them take on CBT when they are more motivated limitation as it means CBT is not fully effective alone
all psychotherapies have the common basis of patient-therapist relationship and the quality of this relationship may determine success rather than technique. comparitive reviews such as Luborsky et al (2002) find v small diffs btwn therapies - suggests they share a common basis.
some patients want to explore their past, as their experiences may have led to the depression. however CBT has a focus on present and future and this may bean CBT ignores an important part of the patient's experience
CBT may minimise the importasnce of circumstances usch as poverty and abuse. this situation needs to be changed and approaches whihc focus on mind rather than environment can prevent this, and can lead to inappropriate demotivation to change their situation.
The COMT gene is associated with the regulation the neurotransmitter dopamine. One variation of the COMT gene results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients with OCD, in comparison to people without OCD.
The SERT gene is linked to the neurotransmitter serotonin and affects the transport of the serotonin (hence SERotonin Transporter), causing lower levels of serotonin which is also associated with OCD (and depression)
OCD cannot be narrowed down to a single gene - Taylor (2013) found that as many as 230 different genes may be involved.
one group of genes may cause OCD in one person, but a different may cause it in another different types of OCD may be the result of particular geetic variations
Serotonin regulates mood and lower levels of serotonin are associated with mood disorders, such as depression. Furthermore, some cases of OCD are also associated with the reduced levels of serotonin, which may be caused by the SERT gene (see above). Further support for the role of serotonin in OCD comes from research examining anti-depressants, which have found that drugs which increase the level of serotonin are effective in treating patients with OCD.
the neurotransmitter dopamine has also been implicated in OCD, with higher levels of dopamine being associated with some of the symptoms of OCD, in particular the compulsive behaviours.
The basal ganglia is a brain structure involved in multiple processes, including the coordination of movement. Patients who suffer head injuries in this region often develop OCD-like symptoms, following their recovery. Furthermore, Max et al. (1994) found that when the basal ganglia is disconnected from the frontal cortex during surgery, OCD-like symptoms are reduced, providing further support for the role of the basal ganglia in OCD
the orbitofrontal cortex is a region which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions. PET scans have found higher activity in the orbitofrontal cortex in patients with. One suggestion is that the heightened activity in the orbitofrontal cortex increases the conversion of sensory information to actions (behaviours) which results in compulsions. The increased activity also prevents patients from stopping their behaviours
Lewis (1936) examined patients with OCD and found that 37% of the patients with OCD had parents with the disorder and 21% had siblings who suffered. Research from family studies, like Lewis, provide support for a genetic explanation to OCD, although it does not rule out other (environmental) factors playing a role. Furthermore, Nestadt et al. (2010) conducted a review of previous twin studies examining OCD. They found that 68% of identical twins and 31% of non-identical twins experience OCD, which suggests a very strong genetic component.
Anti-depressants typically work by increasing levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin. These drugs are effective in reducing the symptoms of OCD and provide support for a neural explanation of OCD.
the biological approach does not take into account cognitions (thinking) and learning. Some psychologists suggest that OCD may be learnt through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning stimulus (for example, dirt) is associated with anxiety and this association is then maintained through operant conditioning, where a person avoids dirt and continually washes their hands. This hand washing reduces their anxiety and negatively reinforces their compulsions.
psychologists haven't been so successful w/ pinning down all the genes involved - perhaps because there are several genes and each genetic variation only increases the risk by a fraction. genetic explanation isn't useful as it provides very little predictive value.
biological explanations are reductionist as they ignore environmental factors. however, Cromer er al (2007) found that over half of OCD patients in sample had experienced taruma in their past and OCD was more severe w/ sever trauma. may be predisposition, but enviro trigger causes onset of condition in varying severities.
serotonin-OCD link may not be unique to OCD. many people who suffer OCD also suffer depression. this dpression probably involves disruption to serotonin system so it could simply be that the serotonin system is disrupted in many patients in OCD because they are depressed as well.
serotonin is released from the pre-synaptic cell into the synapse, and travels to the receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron. serotonin which is not absorbed into the post-synaptic neuron is reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic neuron. SSRIs increase level of serotonin available by preventing it from being reabsorbed. this increases level of serotonin in the synapse and results in more serotonin being received by post-synaptic neuron. 3-4 months of daily usage needed for impact upon symptoms.
drugs often used alongside CBT to combat OCD. drugs reduce emotional symptoms, allowing patient to engage more effectively w/ CBT.
same effect on serotonin system as SSRIs but w/ more severe side-effects
Soomro et al found SSRIs significantly better at reducing symptoms than a placebo. effectiveness is greater when combined w/ CBT. typically symptoms reduce for around 70% of patients taking SSRIs and the rest are helped by other drugs ar drugs+CBT. so they can help most patients.
cheap compared to psychological treatments so good value for NHS. non-disruptive to lives of patients as they do not need to schedule weekly appointments as they do for psychological therapies. works for patients and healthcare system
side effects resuce effectiveness of drug as people stop taking the medication.
some people believe research is biased as it is sponsored by the drug companies who are trying to market the drugs. so evidence against the drugs may be suppressed to maximise economic gain.
OCD is widely believed to be biological in origin, so drug therapies are the go-to tratment. however some people suffer following traumatic events, which drug therapy is not set up to treat. in these cases psychological therapy may be more effective. limitation as it means drug therapies cannot be used on all patients.
from birth babies signal when they are ready to interact.
a form of communication in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion and both partners match emotional states, especially positive ones.
infants as young as two weeks old were able to imitate specific facial and hand gestures by a caregiver model
observed 30 babies and their mothers and found that higher levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality attachment
one person responds to another to elicit another response. involves close attention to each other's verbal and facial signals.
all that is being observed is merely hand gestures or changes in movement → difficult to be sure, based on these observations what is taking place from infant's perspective.
interactions usually filmed from multiple angles → very fine detail can be recorded. babies unaware of being observed so behaviour doesn't change (no demand characteristics). ∴ studies have good validity.
reciprocity and synchrony simply point out behaviours that occur at the same time - observations don't tell us the purpose, though.
caregiver-infant interaction research suggests that children may be disadvantaged by certain child-rearing practices, specifically mothers who return to work soon after birth. this is a socially sensitive issue as it creates a negative view of the working mother.
research could lead to valuable methods of improving mother-infant attachments - particularly in at-risk groups.
the first strong bond a child makes with a career, demonstrated by the intensity of the relationship, is normally associated as the mother
additional attachments that the baby forms with close family members such as father or grandparents
longitudinal study looking at relationship btwn parents' behaviour and quality of attachments into teens. found that quality of attachment w/ father was less important in attachment type of teenager than that of the mother. ∴ fathers may be less important in long-term emotional development.
quality of father's play related to children's attachments. suggests fathers' role in attachment is more related to play and stimulation than nurturing.
evidence suggests that when fathers take on role as primary caregiver they adopt typical behaviours of mothers. level of response is important: can be the more nurturing attachment figure if they give correct cues such as smiling, holding hands, etc.
some psychologists are interested in father as primary attachment figure, some interested in father as secondary attachment figure → psychologists see them in each light specific to which type of research is being carried out. ∴ psychologists cannot answer simple question over role of father
Grossman found that fathers as secondary figures had distinct play-based role in children's development. Other studies on single or same-sex parent families found no difference in development → suggests father's role in secondary attachment is not important.
answer could be related to gender roles, meaning fathers simply don't feel that they should act nurturing. or it could be female hormones creating higher levels of nurturing. no clear answer has been provided.
preconceptions about how fathers behave may cause unintentional observer bias where observers see what they expect rather than actual reality. conclusions about role of father difficult to disentangle from social biases about their role.
mothers feel pressure to stay at home due to research stating that they are vital for healthy development - may not be economically the best solution for the family or society.
stage from 0-6 weeks where infant may respond to faces or voices but an attachment has not been formed
infants aged 2-7 months can discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people but does not show stranger anxiety
infants aged 7 months tend to show a strong attachment to one particular person and are wary of strangers