biology

Cells require oxygen, glucose, and nutrients for metabolism and waste removal.

What is the need for transport of substances in and out of cells?

Includes atria, ventricles, valves, and major blood vessels.

Label the main internal structures of the mammalian heart.

The left ventricle has thicker walls than the right to pump blood at higher pressure.

How does muscle thickness differ in the heart?

Blood flows from the body to the right atrium, then to the right ventricle, lungs, left atrium, left ventricle, and back to the body.

Describe the pathway of blood through the mammalian heart.

It consists of two circuits: pulmonary for lungs and systemic for the body.

What are the key features of the double mammalian circulatory system?

It allows for efficient oxygen delivery and waste removal at higher pressures.

Why is a double circulatory system needed in mammals?

Arteries have thick walls for high pressure; veins have valves; capillaries enable exchange.

Describe the structure and functions of arteries, veins, and capillaries.

Red blood cells carry oxygen; white blood cells fight infection; plasma transports nutrients.

How is blood structure related to its function?

Stroke volume is blood per beat; heart rate is beats per minute; cardiac output is total blood per minute.

What are stroke volume, heart rate, and cardiac output?

Exercise increases heart rate and stroke volume to meet oxygen demands.

How does exercise impact heart activity?

Risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, and high cholesterol.

What are some causes of cardiovascular disease?

Treatments include lifestyle changes, medications, and surgical procedures.

What are some treatments for cardiovascular disease?

Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen.

What is the word equation for photosynthesis?

Carbon dioxide enters through stomata; water is absorbed by roots.

How do carbon dioxide and water enter the leaf for photosynthesis?

Stomata are primarily located on the underside of leaves to reduce water loss.

What is the distribution of stomata in a leaf?

Increased light intensity boosts the rate until a saturation point is reached.

How does light intensity affect the rate of photosynthesis?

Includes epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular bundles.

Label the cross-section of a leaf.

Stomata and spongy mesophyll facilitate gas movement.

What structures in the leaf enable efficient gas exchange?

Root hair cells have a large surface area for water and nutrient absorption.

What are the adaptations of root hair cells?

Glucose, water, and mineral ions are essential for plant functions.

What substances need to be transported in the leaf?

Food is broken down mechanically and chemically to absorb nutrients.

Describe the process of digestion.

Includes mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas.

Label components of the digestive system.

Enzymes break down macromolecules into absorbable units.

What role do enzymes play in digestion?

Produced in the salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine.

Where are digestive enzymes produced and released?

Peristalsis is the wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.

What is peristalsis?

Villi and microvilli increase surface area for nutrient absorption.

What are the adaptations of the small intestine?

Bile emulsifies fats to aid in their digestion and absorption.

What is the role of bile in digestion?

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions.

What is meant by the term enzyme?

Temperature and pH can increase or decrease enzyme efficiency.

What factors affect the rate of enzyme activity?

Substrate fits into the enzyme's active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.

Explain the stages of the lock and key theory of enzymes.

Extreme conditions can denature enzymes, reducing their activity.

How do temperature or pH affect enzyme activity?

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy.

What is the word and chemical equation for aerobic respiration?

Glucose → Lactic Acid + Energy.

What is the word equation for anaerobic respiration?

Aerobic uses oxygen and produces more energy; anaerobic occurs without oxygen and produces less energy.

Compare anaerobic and aerobic respiration.

Independent is manipulated; dependent is measured; control remains constant.

What are independent, dependent, and control variables in an experiment?