Master this deck with 240 terms through effective study methods.
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Support sells that prop up the neurons and nervous systems.
The process by which neurons travel from the neural tube to their intended destinations in the brain/spinal cord.
an agent that induces developmental abnormalities in a fetus.
"Startle response” a child reacts defensively to visual and auditory stimuli (may or may not cry).
“Hand on cheek” a child rubs their hands on their face to detect/process tactile (touch) stimuli.
Curling of one’s toes in preparation for walking.
Curling of one’s hands to strengthen motor neurons in fingers/hands/arms.
the process by which neural connections improve from the brain first before moving to the rest of the body. (Moro reflex)
The process by which neural connections improve from the extremities first then brain.
an additional copy of chromosome 21, resulting in three copies instead of the normal two copies.
Starts out as unsophisticated and then gets better over time.
a statistical estimate of the contribution of inheritance to a given trait or function in a population (but not in particular individuals). Heritabilities can range from 0, indicating no contribution of heritable factors, to 1, indicating total contribution of heritable factors.
a simple yet profound and highly effective learning process that occurs during a critical period in the life of some animals. The first organism the infant sees it begins to copy.
between 13 and 16 hours shortly after birth.
In this experiment, there are three people: a child, the child’s mother, and a researcher. Ainsworth measured the ability for the child to react to the presence or absence of the mother and researcher over several stages of the experiment. They even left the baby alone in the room for three minutes to see how they would react.
the characteristic way people relate to others in the context of intimate relationships, which is heavily influenced by self-worth and interpersonal trust. Theoretically, the degree of attachment security in adults is related directly to how well they bonded to others as children.
the child displays confidence when the parent is present, shows mild distress when the parent leaves, and quickly reestablishes contact when the parent returns.
an adult attachment style that combines a negative internal working model of attachment of oneself and a positive internal working model of attachment of others, characterized by one’s trust in the ability and dependability of others.
an adult attachment style that combines a positive internal working model of attachment of oneself, characterized by a view of oneself as competent and worthy of love, and a negative internal working model of attachment of others, characterized by one’s view that others are untrustworthy or undependable.
an adult attachment style characterized by a negative internal working model of attachment of oneself and of others. Individuals with fearful attachment doubt both their own and others’ competence and efficacy and are presumed not to seek help from others when distressed.
Developmental Psychologist credited with developing attachment theory.
Developmental Psychologist responsible for discovering temperament.
the basic foundation of personality, usually assumed to be biologically determined and present early in life, including such characteristics as energy level, emotional responsiveness, demeanor, mood, response tempo, behavioral inhibition, and willingness to explore.
These kinds of children are known for being flexible.
These children are flexible but it takes time for them to establish a routine.
These children are known for having intense power in several of the nine factors. They are extremely active, “feisty” and difficult to handle.
There are three kinds of parenting: Authoritarian, Permissive, Authoritative.
known for strict rules and discipline.
known for lack of structure and discipline.
these parents have a blend of authoritarian style structures and permissive style freedom.
Regularity generally refers to how consistent someone is with biological functions. We may all know people who go to bed and get up around the same time every day
A cognitive process in which new information is incorporated into an already existing cognitive structure.
A cognitive process in which already existing structures are changed to accommodate new information.
the typical skills and expected level of achievement associated with a particular stage of development.
The first stage of Piaget’s constructivist model is the sensorimotor stage. Typically it takes place between the time a child is born to the time they are two years old.
The Concrete Operational Stage is the third stage of cognitive theory. Children typically experience this phase from the ages of seven years to 11 years old.
a person’s ability to tell objects exist even when they are covered. In the early stages of the sensorimotor stage, a child cannot tell whether objects exist when they are covered.
At this stage, a child believes that their point of view is the only valid one. On the one hand, a child cannot process or accept facts or points of view that are different from their own. On the other hand, a child is able to properly articulate their perspective and beliefs.
In this stage, children learn to process concepts one step at a time. Much like egocentrism, this kind of firm analytical skillset is important because if a child cannot properly process one event or sequence, they cannot process more.
The ability to determine equal values regardless of appearances. For example, a child can determine that if you poured a liter of soda into a wide punch bowl, it’s still the same amount. Assuming no one drank the soda, it could be poured back into the liter bottle from the bowl and still be the same amount.
In this stage, a child experiences a form of accommodation by learning to process multiple variables and points of view. In this way, the previous schema of egocentrism--focusing on only one’s own perspective-- is forever changed. From this foundation, the beginning of multitasking takes form.
In this kind of thinking, children are able to tie a specific incident to a broader or general principle. For example, if kids realize they break out in hives every time they eat strawberries, they may realize they are allergic to them because they tie the isolated incident of eating strawberries to the broader principle of being allergic.
Hypothetical Thinking requires people to take a general principle and create a specific example/scenario from it. In terms of science, the best example of Hypothetical Thinking is designing an experiment. Other examples can include creative writing and joke telling.
the ability to tell multiple outcomes to a single event. The key to abstract thought is that judgment is not based on actual experience but understanding of variables that are not concrete (has physical form).
the stage during which the child, typically 10 years of age or older, eventually understands that rules and laws are not permanent, fixed properties of the world but rather are flexible, modifiable entities created by people.
in Jean Piaget’s theory of moral development, the stage during which the child, approximately 6 to 10 years of age, equates morality with the rules and principles of his or her parents and other authority figures.
in Jean Piaget’s theory of moral development, the stage at which young children (under the age of 5) are unaware of rules as cooperative agreements; that is, they are unable to distinguish right from wrong.
The smallest unit of speech including letters in the alphabet and different ways of pronouncing those letters.
The smallest unit of meaning in language. Morphemes can relate both to spoken and written language.
This is the process that deals with word choice and their structures.
This process deals with the arrangement of words to convey a thought.
speakers are required to participate in a wide range of language demands where the more proficient speakers can help the emerging learners. The speakers then actively learn from each other.
Emergenists argue that humans have a basic understanding of language instinctually and learn how to control it through practice and interaction with their environment.
The choice of words and basic information being conveyed.
The actual meaning of written and oral communication.
the particular language one speaks influences the way one thinks about reality.
An algorithm as a problem solving ability is the process by which information is split up into step-by-step stages to accomplish a particular goal.
shortcuts which shorten the necessary time and energy to make decisions. One of the most famous heuristics is the process of elimination: reasoning out what variables can’t qualify for a solution to isolate ones that do.
a physical representation of the step by step process a person needs to follow to carry out a task. Famous examples include blueprints, flowcharts, pie charts, and diagrams. In all cases, cognitive maps externalize thought processes --because when they’re not externalized, they’re mental maps.
in this problem solving ability, a human subject who is struggling with a stimulus (piece of information) suddenly re-interprets that information to create a solution that solves it.
the ability to problem solve in an independent way.
a form of cognitive bias that restricts variables to their traditional or customary functions.
the subject struggles with absorbing new information because it conflicts with information that has already been stored in their brains.
a subject consciously tries to double down on their inaccurate beliefs when presented with evidence which clearly disproves them.
a subject tends to view the past more favorably than the present or future.
the first and usually most famous thing that comes to mind when considering a concept.
a subject has a preference for current circumstances and a resistance to change because the possible discomfort to changing the current situation proves to be too much to endure.
one of the oldest and deals with actively focusing on information that can cause us harm over neutral or positive information as a defense mechanism.
In this cognitive bias, human beings actively avoid stimuli which have missing pieces of information in favor of stimuli which have all the information presented.
subjects focus on the well-being of people in their own reference group (people who share a common trait/interest) than people outside their reference group. The needs/values of their group are more important than those of people outside.
subjects become more accustomed and appreciative of stimuli that they are exposed to the most. This bias becomes all the more clear when there is a significant change to the stimulus to which they are accustomed.
a subject predicts outcomes to a certain situation based on information that subject can easily recall from their memory.
a subject actively prioritizes information that supports their pre-established beliefs ---despite the fact that there may be an overabundance of surrounding information that either disproves it or puts the information in a different context.
a subject believes that their own knowledge and skill set ---limited as it is--- is superior to their peers thus enabling them to do tasks for which they are unqualified.
in this kind of cognitive bias, the effects of an event must directly match their causes in terms of magnitude and sophistication. If an event with major consequences occurs --such as a presidential assassination-- there must have been major causes.
a subject explains their actions and beliefs more favorably when comparing the same exact actions and beliefs to others.
a stress-management strategy in which a person focuses on regulating his or her negative emotional reactions to a stressor.
a stress-management strategy in which a person directly confronts a stressor in an attempt to decrease or eliminate it.
the tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen.
Information is more likely to be remembered if there is both a factual and emotional component to it. This process causes the information to be processed, encoded, and stored by both the cerebral cortex and the limbic system.
A form of applied psychology where companies demonstrate social responsibility that is perceived as genuine by consumers, they are rewarded with increased respect, which in turn leads to greater profits.
People often evaluate a decision to commit an action more negatively than a decision to omit an action, given that both decisions have the same negative consequence
a conscious or unconscious distortion motivated by one's incentives or motivations.
presentation of a particular sensory stimulus increases the likelihood that participants will identify the same or a similar stimulus later in the test.
when the observer's prejudices influence the behaviors towards the people they are observing.
our tendency to believe that a successful streak is likely to lead to further success.
During this heightened stage of awareness, muscles become tighter due to triggers from the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) to run away, confront the source, stay in one place or try to appease the stressor.
Any triggering mechanism that causes stress:
Part of the body responsible for responding to stress.
stress or injury, blood cortisol levels, and therefore glucose levels, increase, as does blood pressure, whereas activity of the immune system decreases and release of inflammatory substances in the body is contained.
An excitatory neurotransmitter similar to epinephrine in its functions. The difference is it comes from the brainstem.
Developed by Hans Seyle, General Adaptation Theory is the process by which your body encounters, combats, and recovers from stressful stimuli.
At this stage, the body attempts to recover from the stressful encounter. Immune system is impaired, metabolism is down.
after the body has initially responded to the stressful stimulus, biological and psychological factors try to return to a pre-frightened status. The Parasympathetic Nervous System is attempting to deactivate the Sympathetic Nervous System.
This stage occurs at the exact moment a subject encounters a stressful situation including activated sympathetic nervous system and fight or flight.
Failure of the heart due to high epinephrine levels.
A type of white blood cell that surrounds and kills microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune system cells. In this case, it is impaired by high levels of cortisol and epinephrine.
Type A Personalities are assertive leaders and seek control over their lives and environment. Because of their desire to remain in constant control over their lives, they may experience higher levels of stress in adverse situations than other personality types. As a result, Type-A personalities are more likely to experience these symptoms. Explosive bursts of emotion/outrage Higher Blood Pressure Higher Risk of Stroke.
type B Personality: Type B Personalities are easier going and people oriented individuals. When experiencing stress, Type B personalities can usually handle stress without resorting to fight or flight. As a result, Type-B personalities are more likely to experience stress with the following symptoms. “Freezing” during “fight or flight” by electing to do nothing. Retreat from interpersonal connections and isolate themselves.
Type C Personalities are similar to Type A personalities in the sense that they want control over their situation, however, they may not assertively take as much control as award oriented Type-A individuals do. When dealing with stress, Type C Personalities are more likely to experience the following symptoms… Repressing emotions but having them involuntarily come back in higher intensity.
A form of stress caused by outside factors including things a person wants to do (approach) and things a person doesn’t want to do (avoid).
A subject experiences stress because they are confronted with two equally pleasant options which are incompatible. While selecting one option will bring a positive outcome, an equally appealing choice cannot be taken.
A subject experiences stress because there is one outside force/option that they want to pursue and one outside force/option that they consider unpleasant.
A subject experiences stress because they are confronted with two equally unpleasant outside forces and they have to pick the force to pursue. Since both options are unpleasant, the subject must evaluate each of them and pick the one they consider to be less painful.
Part of the brain that is responsible for carrying out executive functioning. It’s the advanced part of the brain and therefore carrying out advanced thinking to maintain a rational mindset.
The irrational part of the brain which is supposed to be in check by the cerebral cortex when Executive Functioning is in place.
Part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for fight or flight. The likelihood of activation is intended to be curbed when executive functioning is in place.
Part of the primal brain responsible for triggering the Sympathetic Nervous System for fight or flight.
the ability to maintain clear thinking processes and decision making skills regardless of outside stimuli.
the ability to curb one’s irrational impulses in a given situation.
a subject prioritizes certain senses and information over others to accomplish a task.
a subject uses their communication skills in an attempt to rationally examine and resolve a situation.
a subject is able to maintain control of their basic emotions by identifying and acknowledging that the situation in which they find themselves is more complicated and nuanced when more thought is applied.
a subject takes initiative to participate in behaviors and rituals that will benefit themselves both on the short and long term basis.
a subject creates a logical set of strategies for accomplishing a given task.
The encephalization quotient says that the size of an organism’s brain is directly related to its intelligence.
a metric for intelligence which states that intelligence can be determined by cognitive tests to a specific numerical value.
a standard measure of an individual’s intelligence level based on psychological tests.
there are six factors ( verbal ability (V), word fluency (WF), numerical ability (N), spatial intelligence (S), memory (M), perceptual speed (P), and reasoning (R)) that you can calculate with a test and assign percentiles to the results.
theory of intelligence in which three key abilities—analytical, creative, and practical—are viewed as largely (although not entirely) distinct.
Practical intelligence is a subject’s ability to adapt and solve problems in various different contexts. Subjects with high practical intelligence are extremely adaptive and have the ability to read and understand people effectively.
Creative intelligence is defined as a subject’s ability to develop new ways of thinking and expressing concepts. Individuals with high creative intelligence like to innovate.
Analytical intelligence is the ability to evaluate information to determine its strengths and weaknesses while also solving problems. Unlike creative or practical intelligence, analytical intelligence works within the traditional confines of a situation and uses logic and structure to solve their problems.
People who understand concepts when broken down into causes and effects and variables.
people who understand best through talking and conversations.
people who understand best with pictures.
People who understand concepts because they learn by doing.
People who learn the best learn through rhythms and sound,
People who learn about things best in groups.
People who reason things out on their own.
this kind of intelligence focuses on a subject’s ability to learn new information and develop new skills.
This kind of intelligence focuses on a subject’s ability to efficiently apply skills and knowledge they already have developed.
Assessments that determine aptitude are geared towards presenting a problem to a subject --to which they have no previous exposure-- and see how they perform while solving it.
Assessments that determine achievement are geared towards having a subject apply skills they already know. A common example of an achievement assessment is a unit or semester final.
This assessment measures a subject’s ability to test their fluid intelligence by accomplishing a task --to which they have limited exposure-- in a limited amount of time.
this assessment measures a subject’s ability to provide a sophisticated account of their knowledge/skills without a time limit, thereby showcasing crystalized intelligence.
A psychological mindset that suggests that social improvements directly cause improvements in the intelligence of a community.
The growth mindset is a psychological attitude which states that with the proper cognitive algorithms, practice, and patience, a subject will be able to develop knowledge and skills that they did not previously possess.
The fixed mindset is a psychological attitude that states that a subject will continue to retain control over the knowledge and skill set that they have and will struggle greatly with learning new information.
A measurement tool that measures the speed of nonverbal processing.
a timeline which states that at certain ages, humans must have certain skills to be on “the same intellectual level” with their peers.
Savant syndrome is a psychological condition in which a subject may experience limitations in some forms of intelligence ---such as interpersonal communication or bodily kinesthetic activities--- but demonstrate extraordinary achievement in other forms of intelligence such as logical/analytical reasoning or visual-spatial awareness.
an organizational pattern for data which indicates that individuals who scored as well as, or better than, the percent of individuals in the norm group.
the stage of development when the genital organs reach maturity and secondary sex characteristics begin to appear, signaling the start of adolescence.
If synapses are being used they get stronger. If they don’t get used, they disappear.
Lack of critical thought. Personality regions are forming.
Intense emotions. This subsides when connections are made between the limbic system and the frontal lobe.
Clumsiness and lack of coordination.
Boosts of testosterone and estrogen --depending on assigned sex.
the limbic system/primal brain controls decision making instead of the cerebral cortex.
having the prefrontal cortex be in control over the limbic system/hypothalamus.
changes specific to a subject’s reproductive organs consistent with their assigned biological gender.
For example, in subjects that are biologically women, activity in the ovaries area becomes more active resulting in heightened levels of estrogen and progesterone which are both responsible for menstruation cycles and properly supporting a fetus during pregnancy.
For subjects that are biologically male, activity in the testes area becomes more active resulting in the production of sperm cells.
behaviors that are consistent with a subject’s assigned biological gender but do not relate to their reproductive organs.
In addition to environmental factors, gender norms can also be expressed based on a reference group: a collection of individuals who can be identified based on their shared values, appearances, and/or behaviors. In this context, a subject’s gender norms can be pre-written by the values/expectations of their reference group.
A subject’s identity and gender roles are directly impacted by the presence or absence of certain resources.
Depending on the instructional coding, the structure of the Interstitial Nuclei of the Anterior Hypothalamus (INAH) is formed to determine sexual orientation. This is consistent with the 4-Fs in the hypothalamus. The structure of the INAH, determines to which gender a subject may or may not be romantically attracted.
determine assigned biological gender along with the structure of the brain and endocrine system --including the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.
the presence of male and female characteristics in one individual.
a child’s emerging sense of the permanence of being a boy or a girl.
the understanding that one’s own or other people’s maleness or femaleness does not change over time.
an interpersonal state of extreme emotional closeness such that each party’s personal space can be entered by any of the other parties without causing discomfort to that person.
one’s self-identification as male or female.
Alfred Adler was a student of Sigmund Freud but broke relations with Freud over his emphasis that the sex drive was the primary motivating factor for human behavior. Social Interest: the encouraged values and expectations that a group holds for its members. Masculine Protest: the desire for someone to become better than their former self.
a subject overexaggerates their efforts and/or accomplishments in hopes of receiving an equally large level of praise and respect from their peers.
Humanistic Psychologist responsible for creating Person-Centered Therapy.
The total accumulation of everything a person wants to be (i.e. the best job, the best romantic situation, the best income, etc.)
The objective assessment of what a person is (i.e. what they’re doing in the moment).
Achieving everything a subject wants to accomplish from life.
behavior that appears to be developed and expressed with no specific training or experience and thus has a strong genetic basis.
A state of being in which an individual’s real self is approaching their ideal self.
A state of being in which an individual’s real self is falling away from their ideal self.
Rogers’ own application of Humanistic Psychology designed to apply Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to a therapeutic dynamic.
Supporting a subject in their goals --no matter what they say.
A theory of personality that explains personality in terms of internal characteristics that are presumed to determine behavior.
These kinds of traits apply to behaviors and values that a subject holds most important above all others. Under Gordon Allport’s model, there are typically three cardinal traits that mold a subject’s personality.
central traits are generally culturally bound and are behavioral qualities which can be found in many if not all members of a certain culture or community.
Secondary traits are used to describe how individuals react/present themselves in certain specific situations. These traits differ from Central Traits because they are less consistent and appear in abnormal situations.
a model of the primary dimensions of individual differences in personality. Agreeableness: he tendency to act in a cooperative, unselfish manner Conscientiousness: the tendency to be organized, responsible, and hardworking Extraversion***: Extraverts are relatively outgoing, gregarious, sociable, and openly expressive Neuroticism: If a subject scores highly in this variable, their mood/emotional state is more likely to change in response to presented variables. Openness: The inclination to learn new information and skills.
a questionnaire on which participants indicate the degree to which the descriptors listed apply to them.
a personality assessment device that usually consists of a series of statements covering various characteristics and behavioral patterns to which the participant responds by choosing among fixed answers, such as true, false, always, often, seldom, or never, as applied to themselves.
a projective technique in which the participant is presented with 10 unstructured inkblots (half in black and gray and half including color) and is asked “What might this be?” The examiner classifies the responses according to such structural and thematic (content) factors as color (C), movement (M), detail (D), whole (W), popular or common (P), animal (A), form (F), and human (H).
A personality test --CollegeBoard’s MOST FAVORITE personality test-- which breaks down personality on 5 traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
examination that commonly employs ambiguous stimuli, notably inkblots and enigmatic pictures to trigger emotional responses.
The degree to which a person feels they can control a situation.
A stable and consistent aspect of someone’s identity.
an unstable mindset which is likely to change from one moment to the next.
the environment influences behavior, behavior influences the environment, and both influence the individual, who also influences them.
The degree to which a person feels they can control the situation.
The ability to control a situation is outside a person’s ability.
A clinical psychological test designed to screen for personality disorders.
At this age, a child learns its most important lesson of early development: can I trust the people around me?
At this age, a child comes to terms with the following question: “Can I do things by myself or do I need others to do them for me?”
at this age, a child comes to terms with the following question: “Am I good or bad?”
At this age, a child comes to terms with the following question: “How can I be good?”
at this age, a child comes to terms with the following question: “Who am I?”
At this age, a subject comes to terms with the following question: “Will I ever be loved or will I be alone?”
At this age, a subject comes to terms with the following question: “how can contribute to the world?”
At this age, a subject comes to terms with the following question: “did I live a meaningful life?”
developmental Psychologist who developed identity formation model.
A subject doesn’t have a sense of identity and hasn’t looked for one.
A subject has a sense of identity but they haven’t looked for one. (Someone told them their identity is who they are)
A subject doesn’t have a sense of identity but they are looking for one.
A subject has a sense of self and has looked for one.
the best possible version of one’s self: i.e. best job, best money, best romantic status, etc.
the tendency of people to judge others according to criteria on which they themselves score highly.
a mental representation of psychological attributes that one might possess in the future, in which thoughts about the acquisition of these attributes elicit a sense of anxiety or dread.
the choice to act in line with the value, rather than acting in a way another person or group expects them to.
not an end goal, but rather provide the means by which an end goal is accomplished.
a reaction to emerging adulthood where a person decides to stop progressing and stays in an incomplete stage of development.
(Aka “Peter Pan Syndrome”) An intense reaction to emerging adulthood where a subject voluntarily loses all progress made during the cycle and decides to stay in as close to an adolescent/dependent state as possible. (I.e. moving back in with one’s parents, using them for money, etc.)
a stage where the common menstrual cycle ends and a woman’s ability to reproduce steadily declines.
a culturally specific timetable which dictates when major life events are supposed to occur.
a stage where the common menstrual cycle ends and a woman’s ability to reproduce steadily declines.
a condition characterized by loss of strength, energy, and possibly sex drive due to significant drops in testosterone. Male subjects with andropause may become more irritable and have unstable sleeping patterns depending on how low their testosterone levels fall.
In this condition, plaques begin to build up between synapses to prevent neurons from properly communicating with each other. When the plaques become too strong, signals are no longer sent nor received and neurons begin to die off. The physical effects of this disease include a deterioration of memory, critical thinking, language production and eventually physical functioning.
Much like Alzheimer’s senile dementia is a breakdown in thought processes and is usually caused by alcoholism or physical injuries such as tumor or stroke. Much like Alzheimer’s, the disease is tied to dying neurons.
Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
a behavior in which a subject avoids passing away around major social events such as birthdays and holidays.
Neo-Freudian. Developer of the Psychosocial Development Model.
Developer of the 5 stages of grief.
Designer of the Kohlberg Model of Moral Development.
This is the earliest stage of moral development. Its strongest characteristic is an extremely rigid and almost binary sense of right and wrong. If behavior results in punishment, that behavior is always wrong.
Once a child or adult has an understanding of what the world around them considers to be correct and “good,” they will alter their behavior to seek approval from the people around them.
: At this stage, laws can be bent or even broken if those laws fail to uphold individual rights such as human rights, freedom, health, safety, etc. The key indicator between stage 5 and 6 is that the individual attempts to resolve conflicts through activism and attempting to change the laws (social contract) first before breaking them.
designer of the Gilligan Model of Moral Development.
she argued that Kohlberg’s model overlooks gender norms.
In this stage of development, Gilligan states that decisions are made to satisfy the desires of the self, most notably their physical safety and emotional well-being.
In this stage of development, a subject completely transitions from caring exclusively for oneself to completely sacrificing one’s needs/well-being for the benefit of others.
At this stage in Gilligan’s emotional development, a subject strikes a balance between the needs of others while protecting their own needs.
Alice is playing on the swings with her friend when a bully comes by to beat up her friend. Depending on what Alice does will determine her morality on the Gilligan model.
the degree to which an individual develops their morals is a direct result of how the behaviors they see from the people around them relates to their own emotional reaction to the same events.
The first reaction to a witnessed event based on primal brain processes. Depending on how that first reaction works will determine the moral institutions. These institutions will be intensified with like-minded people.
Punishment Avoidance/Obedience: If behavior results in punishment, that behavior is always wrong.
Exchange of Favors: This stage is the end of preconventional morality because subjects slowly account for different points of view. When this happens, they can begin to understand why people may do things they previously interpreted as “bad.”
Good Boy/Girl Stage: Now that a child has developed decentering and can understand other points of view, children (and adults) often find themselves altering their behavior to seek approval from those points of view.
Law And Order Stage: a person begins to understand why people go against the social norm. While they may empathize with why some people break the law for a good cause, they cannot openly condone the action because they fear ridicule from their peers.
Social Contract: At this stage, subjects transition away from “law and order” reasoning and interpret society as a collection of agreements intended to respect the rights of every individual. The key indicator between stage 5 and 6 is that the individual attempts to resolve conflicts through activism and attempting to change the laws (social contract) first before breaking them.
Universal Ethical Principle: For this behavior to truly count as Stage 6 Postconventional morality, the result must rationally benefit the majority of one’s peers. If the majority of a community’s universal rights are violated by potentially harmful actions, the behavior is not postconventional morality and is instead immoral (going against moral beliefs).