Master this deck with 62 terms through effective study methods.
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A set of techniques to study the world and acquire knowledge; involves observation, hypothesis, prediction, testing, data collection, and theory revision.
1. Make observations 2. Formulate questions 3. Develop hypotheses 4. Make testable predictions 5. Collect data 6. Develop or revise theories.
A characteristic or feature that can change, such as temperature, weight, or number of lever presses.
The variable manipulated by the researcher, expected to affect the DV.
The variable measured; its value depends on changes in the IV.
A cause-and-effect link between IV changes and DV changes.
Any event that can influence behavior. Example: tone, food pellet, or a verbal command.
A particular instance of behavior. Example: dog sitting after a “Sit!” command.
One person’s behavior can evoke another’s. Example: Smiling at someone may make them smile back.
Overt = observable (running, talking); Covert = only observable to self (thinking, feeling anxious).
Appetitive = sought out (food, water); Aversive = avoided (shock, extreme heat).
Water—appetitive if thirsty, aversive if drowning.
A procedure that alters how appetitive or aversive a stimulus is.
Increases appetitiveness/aversiveness. Example: Food deprivation makes food more appetitive.
Decreases appetitiveness/aversiveness. Example: Eating to fullness makes food less appetitive.
Events occur close in time. Example: Thunder follows lightning.
Events occur close in space. Example: Fork near knife on a table.
Predictive relationship where one event depends on another. Example: Food delivered only if rat presses lever.
clearly defined, observable behavior (e.g., “yelling and hitting” instead of “feeling angry”).
Number of responses divided by unit of time. ( r= # of responses/unit of time)
Device by B.F. Skinner that plots responses over time; steeper slope = higher response rate.
Time from stimulus to response onset. Example: Time from “Go!” to first lever press.
Interval = continuous segments, count if behavior occurs; Time-sample = brief observations at spaced intervals.
Degree of agreement between independent observers; ensures measurement accuracy.
Describes behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs, without manipulating variables. (includes naturalistic observation and case studies.)
Strength = sees behavior naturally; Limitation = cannot determine cause-and-effect.
Determines cause of behavior by manipulating IV and measuring DV while controlling other variables.
Each subject has equal chance to be in any group; controls confounding variables.
Design that investigates two or more independent variables on a dependent variable Example: 2 levels of food × 3 age groups.
IV = species type; compares species on tasks to test hypotheses.
Measures before and after treatment but lacks control for other events → weaker causality evidence.
No need to withdraw treatment; applies across behaviors/settings/individuals.
High control over genetics, learning history, and environment; some experiments not ethical with humans.
Strict ethical guidelines, minimize harm, justify research benefits, humane housing and care.
Developed operant conditioning, cumulative recorder.
Law of effect; early instrumental conditioning.
Classical conditioning; conditioned reflex experiments.
Methodological behaviorism; Little Albert experiment.
Naturalistic observation of chimpanzees.
Applied behavior analysis pioneers; applied research methods in natural settings.
A rate includes time (responses per unit time), whereas a simple frequency does not include a time component.
Intensity (magnitude of response), duration (how long it lasts), and speed (how quickly it is performed)
The count of incorrect responses (e.g., wrong turns in a maze, exam mistakes) used as an index of learning.
Often require many subjects, focus on average performance instead of individuals, and results are typically analyzed only at the end of the experiment.
Had epilepsy: In 1953, doctors surgically removed parts of his medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, to reduce seizures. After surgery, H.M. could no longer form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia), though his short-term memory and some old memories remained intact. He could still learn new motor skills (procedural memory), even if he didn’t remember practicing them.
Speed = how fast behavior occurs; latency = time between stimulus and response; fluency = combination of accuracy and rate.
CS = previously neutral stimulus; US = biologically significant stimulus; CR = learned response; UCR = natural response.
Because the US occurs before the CS, preventing a predictive association.
The same subjects are tested under all experimental conditions (e.g., before vs. after treatment).
Different groups are tested under different conditions to compare effects.
Contiguity is about events that “happens close together,” contingency is about an event that “happens because of" an event.
A-B design: Baseline (A) → Treatment (B). Only compares before vs. after treatment. Disadvantage: Other events could explain behavior change; doesn’t prove causality. A-B-A-B design (reversal): Baseline → Treatment → Remove treatment → Reintroduce treatment. Advantage: Systematic changes strengthen evidence of causality; behavior changes with treatment on/off.
Treatment is applied at different times across behaviors, settings, or individuals. Advantage: You don’t withdraw an effective treatment, avoiding ethical issues of A-B-A-B reversal. Consistent improvement across multiple baselines still supports treatment effectiveness.
In the brain, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) become linked. When the CS is presented, the brain reacts as if the UCS is happening. Example: Dog hears bell (CS) → thinks of food (UCS) → salivates (CR).
The UCS elicits an innate response that prepares the organism to deal with it; the CR develops to prepare for the UCS. Example: Salivating prepares the dog to digest food.
The CR counteracts or compensates for the effects of the UCS. Often seen in drug use or physiological responses. Example: Body anticipates a drug (UCS) → CR reduces drug’s effect to maintain balance.
There is a limit to how much conditioning can occur between two stimuli. The more surprising/unexpected the UCS, the stronger the conditioning.
A neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with an emotion-arousing UCS, leading to a fear response (CR). Example: Rat hears tone (CS) + shock (UCS) → shows fear (CR) to tone alone.
A behavior therapy technique that evokes new responses to unwanted stimuli. Example: Exposure therapy or aversive conditioning used to replace fear or negative behaviors with positive/neutral responses.
A second CS (CS2) is paired with an already conditioned stimulus (CS1) to produce a CR. Example: Negative words (CS1) paired with a group of people (CS2) → negative feelings toward that group.
If a CS is already associated with a UCS, a new CS added simultaneously may fail to be learned.
When two stimuli are presented together, the more salient stimulus may dominate learning, preventing the other from forming a CR.