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Lipids are nonpolar organic molecules that are hydrophobic and include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids. They are characterized by their solubility in organic solvents and their role in energy storage, cellular structure, and signaling.
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with a linear carbon chain. They can be classified based on chain length (short, medium, long, very long) and saturation (saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated).
Trans fats pack tightly due to their linear structure, which decreases membrane fluidity and increases the risk of cardiovascular disease.
ω nomenclature refers to the method of counting carbons from the methyl (ω) end of the fatty acid chain to identify the position of the first double bond, which is crucial for understanding the fatty acid's properties and health implications.
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are polyunsaturated fatty acids that must be ingested because the body cannot synthesize them. They are vital for various physiological functions, including cell membrane integrity and inflammatory responses.
The main types of lipids include triglycerides (energy storage), phospholipids (cell membrane structure), steroids (hormonal functions), and waxes (protection and waterproofing).
Lipid digestion begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine, where bile salts emulsify fats, and pancreatic lipase breaks them down into fatty acids and monoglycerides for absorption into the intestinal cells.
Lipoproteins are complexes of lipids and proteins that transport lipids through the bloodstream. They include chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL, each serving different functions in lipid metabolism and transport.
Hyperlipidemia, characterized by elevated levels of lipids in the blood, can lead to atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, and pancreatitis. Management often involves lifestyle changes and medications.
Lipid-lowering medications, such as statins, fibrates, and niacin, work by various mechanisms including inhibiting cholesterol synthesis, increasing lipoprotein clearance, and reducing triglyceride levels.
Adverse effects of lipid-lowering therapies can include muscle pain, liver enzyme elevation, gastrointestinal disturbances, and increased risk of diabetes.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide that serves as a form of energy storage in animals, primarily found in the liver and muscles. It can be rapidly mobilized to meet energy demands during physical activity.
Glycogenolysis is the process of breaking down glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate, which can then be converted to glucose-6-phosphate for energy production, particularly during fasting or intense exercise.
Symptoms of glycogen storage diseases can include muscle weakness, hypoglycemia, hepatomegaly, and exercise intolerance, depending on the specific enzyme deficiency involved.
Laboratory findings may include elevated liver enzymes, abnormal glucose levels, increased urine ketones, and the presence of PAS (+) granules in muscle biopsies.
Lactate levels can help differentiate between types of glycogen storage diseases; for example, normal lactate levels during exercise may indicate a specific enzyme deficiency related to glycogen metabolism.
Common types of glycogen storage diseases include Von Gierke disease (Type I), Pompe disease (Type II), and McArdle disease (Type V), each associated with specific enzyme deficiencies and clinical presentations.
During exercise, glycogen is broken down to provide glucose for energy. The rate of glycogenolysis increases with exercise intensity, and the availability of glucose is crucial for sustained physical performance.
Dietary intake, particularly carbohydrates, directly influences glycogen stores. Adequate carbohydrate consumption replenishes glycogen levels, while low intake can lead to depletion and impaired exercise performance.
Untreated glycogen storage diseases can lead to severe complications such as liver failure, muscle damage, growth retardation, and increased risk of metabolic crises.
Enzymes play critical roles in lipid metabolism, including lipases that hydrolyze triglycerides, acyltransferases that facilitate fatty acid synthesis, and desaturases that introduce double bonds into fatty acids.
Apolipoproteins are protein components of lipoproteins that serve as ligands for receptors, activate enzymes involved in lipid metabolism, and help stabilize lipoprotein structures in circulation.
Dietary fats can significantly impact cardiovascular health; saturated and trans fats are associated with increased LDL cholesterol and cardiovascular risk, while unsaturated fats can have protective effects.